sulla primary sources

[107], In the aftermath of the battle, Sulla was approached by Archelaus for terms. "[157] This duality, or inconsistency, made him very unpredictable and "at the slightest pretext, he might have a man crucified, but, on another occasion, would make light of the most appalling crimes; or he might happily forgive the most unpardonable offenses, and then punish trivial, insignificant misdemeanors with death and confiscation of property. 213/23 P.Cornelius Sulla is chosen to be Flamen Dialis. Or he could attempt to reverse it and regain his command. The tools are designed to support 3 levels of critical thinking and inquiry skills (explore, analyse and critically analyse) for years 1 to 13. He defeated Norbanus at the Battle of Mount Tifata, forcing the consul to withdraw. [67], Sulla's election to the consulship, successful likely due to his military success in 89BC, was not uncontested. The collection is particularly strong in the subject areas of education, psychology, American history, sociology, religion, and science and technology. Threatened by the Pontic navy, Sulla sent his quaestor Lucullus to scrounge about for allied naval forces. Late in the year, Sulla cooperated with Marius (who was a legate in the northern theatre) in the northern part of southern Italy to defeat the Marsi: Marius defeated the Marsi, sending them headlong into Sulla's waiting forces. Essentially, they're sources about primary sources. Jugurtha had fled to his father-in-law, King Bocchus I of Mauretania (a nearby kingdom); Marius invaded Mauretania, and after a pitched battle in which both Sulla and Marius played important roles in securing victory, Bocchus felt forced by Roman arms to betray Jugurtha. This, of course, meant that many cases were never heard at all, as poorer clients did not have the money for the sponsio. [50][51], In 94BC, Sulla repulsed the forces of Tigranes the Great of Armenia from Cappadocia. . [43] Refusing to stand for an aedileship (which, due to its involvement in hosting public games, was extremely expensive), Sulla became a candidate for the praetorship in 99BC. [64], Political developments in Rome also started to bring an end to the war. However, if you were studying how compact fluorescent light bulbs are presented in the popular media, the magazine article could be considered a primary source. Sulla had total control of the city and Republic of Rome, except for Hispania (which Marius' general Quintus Sertorius had established as an independent state). Later political leaders such as Julius Caesar would follow his precedent in attaining political power through force. Possibly to protect himself from future political retribution, Sulla had the sons and grandsons of the proscribed banned from running for political office, a restriction not removed for over 30 years. In the natural and social sciences, primary sources are often empirical studies . They were, however, successful in holding Macedonia, then governed by propraetor Gaius Sentius and his legate Quintus Bruttius Sura. Published by at 29, 2022. If Plutarch's text is to be amended to "Julia", then she is likely to have been one of the Julias related to Julius Caesar, most likely. Primary sources are most often produced around the time of the events you are studying. [45][46], While governing Cilicia, Sulla received orders from the Senate to restore Ariobarzanes to the throne of Cappadocia. Despite initial difficulties, Sulla was successful with minimal resources and preparation; with few Roman troops, he hastily levied allied soldiers and advanced quickly into rugged terrain before routing superior enemy forces. 106/10 The quaestor L.Sulla arrives at Marius' camp with reinforcements from Sulla then prohibited ex-tribunes from ever holding any other office, so ambitious individuals would no longer seek election to the tribunate, since such an election would end their political career. [96] Rome unsuccessfully defended Delos from an joint invasion by Athens and Pontus. Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BCE) was a ruthless military commander, who first distinguished himself in the Numidian War under the command of Gaius Marius.His relationship with Marius soured during the conflicts that would follow and lead to a rivalry which would only end with Marius' death.Sulla eventually seized control of the Republic, named himself dictator, and after eliminating his . Sulla's law waived the sponsio, allowing such cases to be heard without it. [139][140], Sulla's goal now was to write his memoirs, which he finished in 78 BC, just before his death. Pompey ambushed eight legions sent to relieve Praeneste but an uprising from the Samnites and the Lucanians forced Sulla to deploy south as they moved also to relieve Praeneste or join with Carbo in the north. [116] Advancing on Capua, he met the two consuls of that year Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus and Gaius Norbanus who had dangerously divided their forces. Editor: Paul Halsall. He brought Pompeii under siege. [104], After the Battle of Chaeronea, Sulla learnt that Cinna's government had sent Lucius Valerius Flaccus to take over his command. The later battle, at Orchomenus, was fought in high summer but before the start of the autumn rains. Ozzy Osbourne Grandchildren, Dalton Smith Pogo Stick, Best Basketball Camps In Ontario, Rinnai R53i Parts Diagram, Mennonite Vs Amish Vs Mormon, [36] Amid a reorganisation of political alliances, the traditionalists in the Senate raised up Sulla a patrician, even if a poor one, as a counterweight against the newcomer Marius. He had one child from this union, before his first wife's death. Mithridates also would equip Sulla with seventy or eighty ships and pay a war indemnity of two or three thousand talents. The Library of Congress Teacher's page provides tools and guides for using primary sources in research, focusing of the unique materials in the Library's digital collections. [37], Starting in 104BC, Marius moved to reform the defeated Roman armies in southern Gaul. You can use the following terms to search HOLLIS for primary sources:. Scipio's men quickly abandoned him for Sulla; finding him almost alone in his camp, Sulla tried again to persuade Scipio to defect. Tools for primary source analysis. He had close connections to the imperial family and was the husband of Antonia, Claudius's daughter, and might thus have been seen as a threat to Nero. Ariobarzanes had been driven out by Mithridates VI of Pontus, who wanted to install one of his own sons (Ariarathes) on the Cappadocian throne. Faced with mobilizing a sufficient fighting force, Congress passed the Selective Service Act on May 18, 1917. Further, Sulla failed to frame a settlement whereby the army (following the Marian reforms allowing nonland-owning soldiery) remained loyal to the Senate, rather than to generals such as himself. Moreover, the people knew that Sulla was friends with Bocchus, a rich foreign monarch, and rejected his standing for the praetorship to induce him to spend money on games. Sulla and the proscriptions Lucius Cornelius Sulla was consul in 88 BC (and again in 80 BC) and dictator from 82 to 79 BC. Through Sulla's reforms to the Plebeian Council, tribunes lost the power to initiate legislation. He then revived the office of dictator, which had been inactive since the Second Punic War, over a century before. Categories . Modern sources have been somewhat less damning, as the Mithridatic campaigns later showed that no quick victory over Pontus was possible as long as Mithridates survived. Websites. He married again, with a woman called Aelia, of which nothing is known other than her name. [28][29], Under Marius, the Roman forces followed a very similar plan as under Metellus, capturing and garrisoning fortified positions in the African countryside. Sulla is generally seen as having set the precedent for Caesar's march on Rome and dictatorship. He was devoted to pleasure but more devoted to glory. But it was from 59, Nero's fifth year as emperor that things started to go seriously . Plutarch, writing much . Normally, candidates had to have first served for ten years in the military, but by Sulla's time, this had been superseded by an age requirement. [16] His father may have served as praetor, but details are unclear; his father married twice and Sulla' stepmother was of considerable wealth, which certainly helped the young Sulla's ambitions. [60], The next year, 89BC, Sulla served as legate under the consul Lucius Porcius Cato. He could acknowledge the law as valid. A primary source is a first-hand or contemporary account of an event or topic. aking of America (MoA) is a digital library of primary sources in American social history from the antebellum period through reconstruction. Plutarch states in his Life of Sulla that "Sulla now began to make blood flow, and he filled the city with deaths without number or limit," further alleging that many of the murdered victims had nothing to do with Sulla, though Sulla killed them to "please his adherents.". Athens itself was spared total destruction "in recognition of [its] glorious past" but the city was sacked. He can hardly have been in any doubt. [126] Sulla's specific movements are very vaguely described in Appian, but he was successful in preventing the Italians from relieving Praeneste or joining with Carbo. Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. His troops were sufficiently impressed by his leadership that they hailed him imperator. 107/14 The dissolute lifestyle of L.Sulla, as a young man. Primary sources enable the researcher to get as close as possible to the truth of what actually happened during an historical event or time period. At the same time, Marius had annihilated the Cimbri's allies, the Teutones, at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae. The Roman general and dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 B.C.) Secondary sources are interpretations of history. Ancient accounts of Sulla's death indicate that he died from liver failure or a ruptured gastric ulcer (symptomized by a sudden hemorrhage from his mouth, followed by a fever from which he never recovered), possibly caused by chronic alcohol abuse. However, this material may be located in a number of places including in the library, elsewhere on campus, or even online. Sulla's descendants continued to be prominent in Roman politics into the imperial period. Pompey, the son of Pompey Strabo, raised a legion from his clients in Picenum and also joined Sulla; Sulla treated him with great respect and addressed him as imperator before dispatching him to raise more troops. The breakdown allowed Sulla to play the aggrieved party and place blame on his enemies for any further bloodshed. Primary sources are first-hand accounts of events. With Sulpicius able to enact legislation without consular opposition, Sulla discovered that Marius had tricked him, for the first piece of legislation Sulpicius brought was a law transferring the command against Mithridates to Marius. Campaigning on his military record, the people were unwilling to hear tales of military bravado from a mere junior officer after two triumphs. With the capture and execution of Carbo, who had fled Sicily for Egypt, both consuls for 82BC were now dead. senators and equites) executed, although as many as 9,000 people were estimated to have been killed. Sulla then settled affairs "reparations, rewards, administrative and financial arrangements for the future" in Asia, staying there until 84BC. [69], Sulla started his consulship by passing two laws. In the ensuing fight, Sulla defeated Marius, who consequently fled to Praeneste. Website. The personal motto was "no better friend, no worse enemy.". [138], As promised, when his tasks were complete, Sulla returned his powers and withdrew to his country villa near Puteoli to be with his family. the execution of Granius, shortly before his own death). Primary Sources are immediate, first-hand accounts of a topic, from people who had a direct connection with it. Continuing towards Scipio's position at Teanum Sidicinum, Sulla negotiated and was almost able to convince Scipio to defect. [100] The Pontic casualties given in Plutarch and Appian, the main sources for the battles, are exaggerated; Sulla's report that he suffered merely fifteen losses is not credible. The Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla - Primary Source Edition Paperback - September 30, 2013 by Augustus Henry Beesly (Author) 3.4 out of 5 stars 4 ratings Pueblo, CO 81001. Primary sources are original . He returned victorious from the east in 82 BC, marched a second time on Rome, and crushed the populares and their Italian allies at the Battle of the Colline Gate. Sulla raised important cavalry forces for Marius and was responsible for the . [127] In the north at the same time, Norbanus was defeated and fled for Rhodes, where he eventually committed suicide. He then reinforced this decision by legislation, retroactively justifying his illegal march on the city and stripping the twelve outlaws of their Roman citizenship. The proceeds from auctioned property more than made up for the cost of rewarding those who killed the proscribed, filling the treasury. Sulla's career is recounted in detail in Howard Hayes Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. During these marriages, he engaged in an affair with Nicopolis, who also was older than him. Primary source is a term used in a number of disciplines to describe source material that is closest to the person, information, period, or idea being studied. [76] The troops were willing to follow Sulla to Rome; his officers, however, realised Sulla's plans and deserted him (except his quaestor and kinsman, almost certainly Lucius Licinius Lucullus). [121], Fighting in 83BC began with reverses for Sulla's opponents: their governors in Africa and Sardinia were deposed. Sulla's arrival in Brundisium induced defections from the Senate in Rome: Marcus Licinius Crassus, who had already fled from the Cinnan regime, raised an army in Spain, and departed for Africa to join with Metellus Pius (who also joined the Sullans), joined Sulla even before his landing in Italy. His colleague was, 79 BC: Retires from political life, refusing the, 78 BC: Dies, perhaps of an intestinal ulcer, with funeral held in Rome, This page was last edited on 2 March 2023, at 11:05. Sulla was closely associated with Venus,[9] adopting the title Epaphroditos meaning favored of Aphrodite/Venus.[10]. This distinction is important because it will affect how you understand these sources. Sulla, meanwhile, had to allow matters to unfold beyond his control. For instance, Da Vinci's Mona Lisa is a primary source because it is the most famous art piece during the Renaissance period. [24] Keaveney 2005, pp. 133/18 Scipio praises C.Marius. Marius and Sulla are very curious figures in the late Roman Republic. The assembly of the people subsequently ratified the decision, with no limit set on his time in office. [128], After the battle at the Colline Gate, Sulla summoned the Senate to the temple of Bellona at the Campus Martius. He was both eloquent and clever, and he made friends easily. [91], During close of the Social War, in 89BC, Mithridates VI Eupator of Pontus invaded Roman Asia. Wikipedia entry + Cornelius , Epaphroditus , Sylla 138/31 The birth of L.Sulla. Primary sources are documents, images, relics, or other works that provide firsthand details of a historical or scientific event. Some set their hearts on houses, some on landsThe whole period was one of debauched tastes and lawlessness. under Gaius Marius in the wars against the Numidian rebel Jugurtha. He then attacked the Samnites and routed one of their armies near Aesernia before capturing the new Italian capital at Bovianum Undecimanorum. . Finding Primary Sources Primary Sources from DocsTeach Thousands of online primary source documents from the National Archives to bring the past to life as classroom teaching tools. [93] News of these conquests reached Rome in the autumn of 89BC, leading the Senate and people to declare war; actual preparations for war were, however, delayed: after Sulla was given the command, it took him some eighteen months to organise five legions before setting off; Rome was also severely strained financially. [41] After the failure of negotiations, the Romans and Cimbri engaged in the Battle of the Raudian Field in which the Cimbri were routed and destroyed. Scipio's army blamed him for the breakdown in negotiations and made it clear to the consul that they would not fight Sulla, who at this point appeared the peacemaker. He was to return the kingdoms of Bithynia and Cappadocia to Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes, respectively. [113] The extra time spent in Asia, moreover, equipped him with forces and money later put to good use in Italy. [25], The Jugurthine War had started in 112BC when Jugurtha, grandson of Massinissa of Numidia, claimed the entire kingdom of Numidia in defiance of Roman decrees that divided it among several members of the royal family. 45-120 CE) was a Platonist philosopher, best known to the general public as author of his "Parallel Lives" of paired Greek and Roman statesmen and military leaders.He was a voluminous writer, author also of a collection of "Moralia" or "Ethical Essays," mostly in dialogue format, many of them devoted to philosophical topics, not at all . To do so would mean total humiliation at the hands of his opponents, the end of his political career, and perhaps even further danger to his life. [141][140][142][143][144] Accounts were also written that he had an infestation of worms, caused by the ulcers, which led to his death. Publius Cornelius Rufinus, one of Sulla's ancestors and also the last member of his family to be consul, was banished from the Senate after having been caught possessing more than 10 pounds of silver plate. Here are the names and relevant periods for some of the main ancient Latin and Greek sources for Roman history. [58] At the start of the war, there were largely two theatres: a northern theatre from Picenum to the Fucine Lake and a southern theatre including Samnium. [74], During the violence, Sulla was forced to shelter in Marius' nearby house (later denied in his memoirs). 1011 accepts these inheritances without much comment and places them around Sulla's turning thirty years of age. When it came to hiding his intentions, his mind was incredibly unfathomable, yet with all else he was extremely generous; especially with money. be determined. Killing Cluentius before the city's walls, Sulla then invested the town and for his efforts was awarded a grass crown, the highest Roman military honour. [81.4] It note also contains an account of Thracian . His enemy, Lucius Cornelius Cinna, was elected consul for 87BC in place of his candidate;[83] his nephew was rejected as plebeian tribune while Marius' nephew was successful. Archives; Correspondence "[132] The majority of the proscribed had not been enemies of Sulla, but instead were killed for their property, which was confiscated and auctioned off. Copyright statement. [23] The means by which Sulla attained the fortune which later would enable him to ascend the ladder of Roman politics are not clear; Plutarch refers to two inheritances, one from his stepmother (who loved him dearly) and the other from his mistress Nicopolis. [92] In the summer of 88, he reorganised the administration of the area before unsuccessfully besieging Rhodes. Some of these historians lived at the time of the events, and therefore, may actually be primary sources, but others, especially Plutarch (CE 45-125), who covers men from multiple eras, lived later than the events they describe. [76][77] They then killed Marcus Gratidius, one of Marius' legates, when Gratidius attempted to effect the transfer of command. [61] But after Cato's death in battle with the Marsi,[62] Sulla was prorogued pro consule and placed in supreme command of the southern theatre. His son, Faustus Cornelius Sulla, issued denarii bearing the name of the dictator,[151] as did a grandson, Quintus Pompeius Rufus. After one of the other legates was killed by his men, Sulla refused to discipline them except by issuing a proclamation imploring them to show more courage against the enemy. This unusual appointment (used hitherto only in times of extreme danger to the city, such as during the Second Punic War, and then only for 6-month periods) represented an exception to Rome's policy of not giving total power to a single individual. If Sulla had married one of the Julii Caesares, this could explain Marius' willingness to entrust such an important task to a young man with no military experience, as Marius too had married into that family. J. The allies in central and southern Italy had fought side by side with Rome in several wars and had grown restive under Roman autocratic rule, wanting instead Roman citizenship and the privileges it conferred. Speeches, diaries, letters and interviews - what the people involved said or . [124] The purge did little to strengthen resolve and when Sulla arrived at Rome, the city opened its gates and his opponents fled. The Steamboat Adventure. Biography Roman military commander and dictator of the Roman republic (81-80 BC). [114], The general feeling in Italy, however, was decidedly anti-Sullan; many people feared Sulla's wrath and still held memories of his extremely unpopular occupation of Rome during his consulship. [citation needed], The second law concerned the sponsio, which was the sum in dispute in cases of debt, and usually had to be lodged with the praetor before the case was heard. Marius, in the midst of this military crisis, sought and won repeated consulships, which upset aristocrats in the Senate; they, however, likely acknowledged the indispensability of Marius' military capabilities in defeating the Germanic invaders. [105] Sulla moved to intercept Flaccus' army in Thessaly, but turned around when Pontic forces reoccupied Boetia. Having exhausted available provisions near Athens, doing so was both necessary to ensure the survival of his army and also to relieve a brigade of six thousand men cut off in Thessaly. Sulla 5 (L. Cornelius Sulla Felix) - Roman dictator, 82-79 B.C. Revised on November 11, 2022. Resigning his dictatorship in 79 BC, Sulla retired to private life and died the following year. Guide to primary sources; Ask for help; CSU Pueblo University Library Email Me. However, his candidature was dealt a blow when he was brought up on charges of extorting Ariobarzanes. These marriages helped build political alliances with the influential Caecilii Metelli and the Pompeys. They are the most direct evidence of a time or event because they were created by people or things that were there at the time or event. He never allowed his debaucheries to interfere with his duties but he devoted all his leisure time to them. Sulla's body was cremated and his ashes placed in his tomb in the Campus Martius. 82 BC. After the battle, Marius withdrew to Praeneste and was there besieged. The hundreds of thousands of men who enlisted . The constitutional reforms of Sulla were a series of laws enacted by the Roman dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla between 82 and 80 BC, reforming the Constitution of the Roman Republic in a revolutionary way.. While besieging Pompeii, an Italian relief force came under Lucius Cluentius, which Sulla defeated and forced into flight towards Nola. Taking Action: Benefits for students that extend beyond the classroom. [88] Political violence in Rome continued even in Sulla's absence. Gnaeus Carbo attempted to lift the Siege of Praeneste but failed and fled to Africa. porterville unified school district human resources; Tags . [107], Mithridates, still in Asia, was faced with local uprisings against his rule. [129], Sulla had his stepdaughter Aemilia (daughter of princeps senatus Marcus Aemilius Scaurus) married to Pompey, although she shortly died in childbirth. Even those whom Sulla had quarrelled with (including Publius Cornelius Cethegus, whom Sulla had outlawed in 88 BC) defected to join his side. He won the first large-scale civil war in Roman history and became the first man of the Republic to seize power through force. Updated on June 22, 2022 Students. His execution in AD 62 on the orders of emperor Nero made him the last of the Cornelii Sullae. Perseus Collection of Greek and Roman Material - Has numerous texts of primary sources. He dismissed his lictores and walked unguarded in the Forum, offering to give account of his actions to any citizen. The cultivated grapevine (Vitis vinifera ssp. Reason #4: studying primary sources helps students become better citizens. After some days, both sides engaged in battle. A research article or study proving this would be a primary source. Capturing the city, Sulla had it destroyed. Sulla and Pompeius Rufus opposed the bill, which Sulpicius took as a betrayal; Sulpicius, without the support of the consuls, looked elsewhere for political allies. Primary sources are available here primarily for use in high-school and university/college courses. Student Engagement: Primary source materials "help spark students . [61] Pompeii was taken some time during the year, along with Stabiae and Aeclanum; with the capture of Aeclanum, Sulla forced the Hirpini to surrender. [68] Shortly after Sulla's election, probably in the last weeks of the year, Sulla married his daughter to one of his colleague Pompeius Rufus' sons. A primary source is an original object or document -- the raw material or first-hand information. The two primary sources for this paper are Sallust's Sulla's First Civil War (88-87 BC) was triggered by an attempt to strip him of the command against Mithridates and saw Sulla become the first Roman to lead an army against the city for four hundred years. For now, Cinna and the Marian political faction would have to wait, but revenge would prove far deadlier than anything that had come before it. Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did. [109] Faced with Fimbria's army in Asia, Lucullus' fleet off the coast, and internal unrest, Mithridates eventually met with Sulla at Dardanus in autumn 85BC and accepted the terms negotiated by Archelaus. [65] This had been preceded by the lex Julia, passed by Lucius Julius Caesar in October 90BC, which had granted citizenship to those allies who remained loyal. [98] He separately besieged Athens and Piraeus (the Long Walls had since been demolished). Also useful for understanding Sulla's career are the article by E. Baddian . Textbook passages discussing specific concepts, events, and experiments. Primary Source Terms:. The Mithridatic War (88 - 85 BC) His primary duty was the defeat of Mithridates and the re-establishment of Roman power in the east. Se l'azienda ha pi di 200 dipendenti, deve essere presente anche il rappresentante sindacale aziendale (RSA). He declined battle with Pontus at the hill Philoboetus near Chaeronea before manoeuvring to capture higher ground and build earthworks. They had, however, fallen on hard times. [117] Sulla attempted to open negotiations with Norbanus, who was at Capua, but Norbanus refused to treat and withdrew to Praeneste as Sulla advanced. In an harangue to the people, he said, with reference to these measures, that he had proscribed all he could think of, and as to those who now escaped his memory, he would proscribe them at some future time. Yes, if the painting originated at the time it depicts, then it is a primary source. They are often based on primary sources. primary name: Sulla, Lucius Cornelius other name: Cornelius L f P n Sulla Felix . to the Birth of the Roman Empire (1969). "[156], He was said to have a duality between being charming, easily approachable, and able to joke and cavort with the most simple of people, while also assuming a stern demeanor when he was leading armies and as dictator. History has portrayed them as being emblematic for a generation of chaos in Roman society. This prophecy was to have a powerful hold on Sulla throughout his lifetime. Primary sources can include: Texts of laws and other original documents. What Is a Primary Source? [35], In 104BC, the Cimbri and the Teutones, two Germanic tribes who had bested the Roman legions on several occasions, seemed to again be heading for Italy. In 46 BC Julius Caesar appointed him governor of the province of Africa. Sulla, in full Lucius Cornelius Sulla or later Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, (born 138 bcedied 79 bce, Puteoli [Pozzuoli, near Naples, Italy]), victor in the first full-scale civil war in Roman history (88-82 bce) and subsequently dictator (82-79), who carried out notable constitutional reforms in an attempt to strengthen the Roman Republic during the last century of its existence. In art, literature, and cultural studies, primary sources . The Battle of Chaeronea was fought in early summer around the same time the Athenian acropolis was taken. [76] Without troops defending Rome itself, Sulla entered the city; once there, however, his men were pelted with stones from the rooftops by common people. Tip: If you are unsure if a source you have found is primary, talk to your instructor, librarian, or archivist. Marius (C. Marius) - Roman consul, seven times from 107 B.C. was a major figure in the late Roman Republic. If you have questions, please consult your instructor or librarian. Sulla almost certainly received a normal education for his class, grounded in ancient Greek and Latin classics. vinifera, hereafter V. vinifera) shares a close relationship with humans ().With unmatched cultivar diversity, this food source (table and raisin grapes) and winemaking ingredient (wine grapes) became an emblem of cultural identity in major Eurasian civilizations (1-3), leading to intensive research in ampelography, archaeobotany, and historical .