the following describe internal states of symptoms except

In the central nervous system, it plays a role in arousal and reward mechanisms. In such instances, REM rebound may actually represent an adaptive response to stress in non-depressed individuals by suppressing the emotional salience of aversive events that occurred in wakefulness (Suchecki, Tiba, & Machado, 2012). Stimulant users seek aeuphoric high, feelings of intense elation and pleasure, especially in those users who take the drug via intravenous injection or smoking. Which of the following was an advance in science and medicine in the18th and 19th centuries? This campaign is sponsored in part by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. The following morning, he awoke to barking dogs and unfamiliar voices from downstairs. We might also experience unconscious states of being via drug-induced anesthesia for medical purposes. For instance, have you ever daydreamed while driving home from work or school without really thinking about the drive itself? Why do we devote so much time to sleeping? People who suffer from this disorder can injure themselves or their sleeping partners when engaging in these behaviors. For example, withdrawal from sedative drugs often produces unpleasant arousal and agitation. Although she did not experience any dream-like hallucinations, she was diagnosed with narcolepsy as a result of sleep testing. Surprisingly, narcoleptic episodes are often triggered by states of heightened arousal or stress. Like hypnosis, meditation also shows promise in stress management, sleep quality (Caldwell, Harrison, Adams, Quin, & Greeson, 2010), treatment of mood and anxiety disorders (Chen et al., 2013; Freeman et al., 2010; Vllestad, Nielsen, & Nielsen, 2012), and pain management (Reiner, Tibi, & Lipsitz, 2013). There is a trend that females report more somatic symptoms than males; thus, more females are diagnosed with somatic symptom disorder than males (APA, 2022). Common definitions of health include: a. optimal weight and endurance. Although there are a number of different techniques in use, the central feature of all meditation is clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus (Chen et al., 2013; Lang et al., 2012). Add a comment. Large-scale public health campaigns by the National Institutes of Health and the National Institute of Drug Abuse have led to recent declines in the opioid crisis. The typical episode can last from a minute or two to half an hour. The pons is important for regulating rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (National Institutes of Health, n.d.). Rotating shift work has pervasive effects on the lives and experiences of individuals engaged in that kind of work, which is clearly illustrated in stories reported in a qualitative study that researched the experiences of middle-aged nurses who worked rotating shifts (West, Boughton & Byrnes, 2009). Increased prescriptions led to greater rates of misuse, along with greater incidence of addiction, even among patients who used these drugs as prescribed. In the latter part of 2013, however, the United States Department of Justice issued statements indicating that they would not continue to challenge state medical marijuana laws. These will soon, in all ordinary cases, subdue the most distressing symptoms, and effect a perfect cure in a day or two. In a lucid dream, a person becomes aware of the fact that they are dreaming, and as such, they can control the dreams content (LaBerge, 1990). At rather low doses, alcohol use is associated with feelings of euphoria. The pineal and pituitary glands secrete a number of hormones during sleep. . If someone stays awake for 48 consecutive hours, they could start to hallucinate. The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? These same women were awakened during REM sleep in order to provide a detailed account of their dream content. Marijuana may also have some promise in the treatment of a variety of medical conditions (Mather, Rauwendaal, Moxham-Hall, & Wodak, 2013; Robson, 2014; Schicho & Storr, 2014). A number of risk factors have been associated with SIDS including premature birth, smoking within the home, and hyperthermia. Therefore, it is quite likely that new medications that are developed to treat narcolepsy will be designed to target the hypocretin system. Understanding the impact of sleep on cognitive function should help you understand that cramming all night for a test may be not effective and can even prove counterproductive. The smokable form reaches the brain very quickly to produce an intense euphoria that dissipates almost as fast as it arrives, prompting users to continuing taking the drug. This figure illustrates some of the negative consequences of sleep deprivation. 2. (credit: modification of work by new 1lluminati/Flickr), Medical marijuana shops are becoming more and more common in the United States. Brainwave activity changes dramatically across the different stages of sleep. Sleepis a state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness. This treatment option has proven to be effective for people suffering from mild to severe cases of sleep apnea (McDaid et al., 2009). While awake, we feel alert and aware of the many important things going on around us. Until recently, the United States Department of Justice routinely arrested people involved and seized marijuana used in medicinal settings. In 2012, Kromann and Nielson reported on a case study of a 40-year-old woman who suffered significant ill effects from her use of caffeine. Stick to a sleep schedule, even on the weekends. During periods of emotional arousal, the woman complained that she felt some weakness on the right side of her body. These episodes can last 1020 seconds or longer and often are associated with brief periods of arousal. One of the most common treatments for sleep apnea involves the use of a special device during sleep. While individuals suffering from sleep apnea may not be aware of these repeated disruptions in sleep, they do experience increased levels of fatigue. Bloating or a feeling of fullness in the abdomen. In 2013, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommended tighter controls on their medical use. By the end of this section, you will be able to: Consciousnessdescribes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. Like many other stimulants, cocaine agonizes the dopamine neurotransmitter system by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse. Latent content, on the other hand, refers to the hidden meaning of a dream. that would be one of the problems that Ive encountered. For individuals who are especially open to the power of suggestion, hypnosis can prove to be a very effective technique, and brain imaging studies have demonstrated that hypnotic states are associated with global changes in brain functioning (Del Casale et al., 2012; Guldenmund, Vanhaudenhuyse, Boly, Laureys, & Soddu, 2012). EVERYDAY CONNECTION: Solutions to Support Healthy Sleep, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). As mentioned earlier, lack of sleep can result in decreased mental alertness and cognitive function. The sleep and dreaming researcher Rosalind Cartwright, however, believes that dreams simply reflect life events that are important to the dreamer. Hypnosis has also been used to draw out information believed to be buried deeply in someones memory. Withdrawal from opioids includes pain, which patients often misinterpret as pain caused by the problem that led to the original prescription, and which motivates patients to continue using the drugs. However, when a stimulant drug was used in conjunction with a popular antidepressant, her condition improved dramatically. Rather, the ISS r ecognizes mixed states and depressive symptoms during manic and hypomanic episodes. You don't have to be a psychologist to know that conditions like hunger or fatigue have an impact on thinking and decision-making; these are examples of internal states. Some sleep-deprived individuals have difficulty staying awake when they stop moving (for example sitting and watching television or driving a car). It is often prescribed for minor pain, and it is available over-the-counter in some other countries. Among a variety of neurobiological evidence, John Hobson cites research on lucid dreams as an opportunity to better understand dreaming in general. Thus, K-complexes might serve as a bridge to higher levels of arousal in response to what is going on in our environments (Halsz, 1993; Steriade & Amzica, 1998). If you lie down to take a nap and fall asleep very easily, chances are you may have sleep debt. Drug use disorders are addictive disorders, and the criteria for specific substance (drug) use disorders are described in DSM-5. However, for some, its not because of all-night partying or late-night study sessions. These components include: These steps are conducive to being open to the heightened suggestibility of hypnosis. . Which of the following is true regarding patient adherence: d - all of the above (a - the average adherence rate for taking medication to treat acute illness is about 67%, b - adherence to taking medicine . Psychology 2e by Openstax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Jet lagis a collection of symptoms that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment. Sleep is also associated with the secretion and regulation of a number of hormones from several endocrine glands including: melatonin, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and growth hormone (National Institutes of Health, n.d.). Central sleep apnea is caused by a failure of the brain to activate the muscles of breathing during sleep. b. life expectancy has reached a new high. Awareness of internal stimuli includes feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions. In Falaters case, a jury found him guilty of first degree murder in June of 1999 (CNN, 1999); however, there are other murder cases where the sleepwalking defense has been used successfully. In contrast,non-REM (NREM)sleep is subdivided into four stages distinguished from each other and from wakefulness by characteristic patterns of brain waves. Despite recent changes in laws designed to make obtaining pseudoephedrine more difficult, methamphetamine continues to be an easily accessible and relatively inexpensive drug option (Shukla, Crump, & Chrisco, 2012). Therefore, no movement of voluntary muscles occurs during REM sleep in a normal individual; REM sleep is often referred to as paradoxical sleep because of this combination of high brain activity and lack of muscle tone. In general, these drugs are not thought to possess the same sort of abuse potential as other classes of drugs discussed in this section. d. the gender gap between male and female life expectancy has increased. One of the nurses said, If youve had a partner who does work regular job 9 to 5 office hours . While caffeine may have some indirect effects on dopamine neurotransmission, its primary mechanism of action involves antagonizing adenosine activity (Porkka-Heiskanen, 2011). Train your body to associate the bed with sleeping rather than other activities like studying, eating, or watching television shows. 1. Opioid addiction reached crisis levels in the United States such that by 2019, an average of 130 people diedeach dayof an opioid overdose (NIDA, 2019). One way that this happens involves traveling across multiple time zones. My sophomore college housemate got so stressed out during finals sophomore year he drank almost a whole bottle of Nyquil to try to fall asleep. Methadone clinicshelp people who previously struggled with opioid addiction manage withdrawal symptoms through the use of methadone. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in falling or staying asleep. It is also associated with paralysis of muscle systems in the body with the exception of those that make circulation and respiration possible. Interestingly, individuals who have increased levels of alpha brain wave activity (more often associated with wakefulness and transition into stage 1 sleep) during stage 3 often report that they do not feel refreshed upon waking, regardless of how long they slept (Stone, Taylor, McCrae, Kalsekar, & Lichstein, 2008). It is quite possible that sleep serves no single universally adaptive function, and different species have evolved different patterns of sleep in response to their unique evolutionary pressures. It was getting to the point where it was kind of scary (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013, p. 52). These symptoms include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability, and insomnia (i.e., a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a month's time) (Roth, 2007). Variations and adaptations in cognition and behavior make individuals more or less successful in reproducing and passing their genes to their offspring. Whilecaffeineis generally considered a relatively safe drug, high blood levels of caffeine can result in insomnia, agitation, muscle twitching, nausea, irregular heartbeat, and even death (Reissig, Strain, & Griffiths, 2009; Wolt, Ganetsky, & Babu, 2012). Therefore, the abuse potential of central nervous system depressants is relatively high. Acute alcohol administration results in a variety of changes to consciousness. For instance, some people would say they are morning people, while others would consider themselves to be night owls. Users experience increased energy, feelings of pleasure, and emotional warmth. Rapid eye movement (REM)sleep is characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids. Opium, Heroin, Fentanyl, Morphine, Oxycodone, Vicoden, methadone, and other prescription pain relievers, Decreased pain, pupil dilation, decreased gut motility, decreased respiratory function. Chronic insomnia is almost always associated with feeling overtired and may be associated with symptoms of depression. Homeostatic regulation of sleep is evidenced by sleep rebound following sleep deprivation. Again, this is an intuitive and appealing explanation for why we sleep. People vary in terms of their ability to be hypnotized, but a review of available research suggests that most people are at least moderately hypnotizable (Kihlstrom, 2013). Toleranceis linked to physiological dependence, and it occurs when a person requires more and more drug to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses. In such instances, the individuals schedule changes so frequently that it becomes difficult for a normal circadian rhythm to be maintained. For instance, if a woman dreams about being chased by a snake, Freud might have argued that this represents the womans fear of sexual intimacy, with the snake serving as a symbol of a mans penis. Nicotine is highly addictive, and the use of tobacco products is associated with increased risks of heart disease, stroke, and a variety of cancers. Recent adaptations (e.g., Hobson, 2002) continue to update the theory based on accumulating evidence. Adenosine is a neurotransmitter that promotes sleep. This is of such concern that people who are trying to overcome addiction to these substances should only do so under medical supervision. The freebase version of cocaine, known as crack, is a potent, smokable version of the drug. typically follow the example of their parents more than their friends. One particular aspect of the internal state is that a method applied to the object being in a defined internal state (= a specific set of all its attributes' value) will result in another, also defined (and reproducible) internal state. Alan Hobson, a neuroscientist, is credited for developing activation-synthesis theory of dreaming. Psychological dependence, or drug craving, is a recent addition to the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorder in DSM-5. Users can experience physical symptoms that include nausea, elevated blood pressure, and increased heart rate. Stimulantsare drugs that tend to increase overall levels of neural activity. This chapter will discuss states of consciousness with a particular emphasis on sleep. In fact, it has been suggested that there is no reason to think that energetic demands could not be addressed with periods of rest and inactivity (Frank, 2006; Rial et al., 2007), and some research has actually found a negative correlation between energetic demands and the amount of time spent sleeping (Capellini, Barton, McNamara, Preston, & Nunn, 2008). (credit: modification of work by Mikael Hggstrm). How exactly does a hypnotist bring a participant to a state of hypnosis? Early attempts to treat her condition with a stimulant drug alone were unsuccessful. For example, around one third of individuals diagnosed with narcolepsy experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during narcoleptic attacks (Chokroverty, 2010). The heart rate slows . 3. Often, however, people wishing to learn to meditate receive some training in techniques to achieve a meditative state. Indeed, we know sleep deprivation results in disruptions in cognition and memory deficits (Brown, 2012), leading to impairments in our abilities to maintain attention, make decisions, and recall long-term memories. Our experiences change dramatically while we are in deep sleep and once again when we are dreaming. According to the dissociation view, hypnosis is effectively a dissociated state of consciousness, much like our earlier example where you may drive to work, but you are only minimally aware of the process of driving because your attention is focused elsewhere. On January 16, 1997, Scott Falater sat down to dinner with his wife and children and told them about difficulties he was experiencing on a project at work. As a result, many of us sleep less than 78 hours a night and accrue a sleep debt. (a) Common paraphernalia for heroin preparation and use are shown here in a needle exchange kit. Psychological dependence on these drugs is also possible. For example, Hobson (2009) suggests that dreaming may represent a state of protoconsciousness. Depending on the population and sleep disorder being studied, between 30% and 50% of the population suffers from a sleep disorder at some point in their lives (Bixler, Kales, Soldatos, Kaels, & Healey, 1979; Hossain & Shapiro, 2002; Ohayon, 1997, 2002; Ohayon & Roth, 2002). Medical marijuana is legal in over half of the United States and in the District of Columbia (Figure 4.19). The first three stages of sleep are NREM sleep, while the fourth and final stage of sleep is REM sleep. Vaping uses battery-powered devices, sometimes called e-cigarettes, that deliver liquid nicotine and flavorings as a vapor. This can lead to people compulsively using stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines, in part to try to reestablish the persons physical and psychological pre-use baseline. Sleep apnea is much more common in overweight people and is often associated with loud snoring. Fever. As we grow older, we sleep less. The pituitary gland also secretes growth hormone, during sleep, which plays a role in physical growth and maturation as well as other metabolic processes (Bartke, Sun, & Longo, 2013). The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? Feeling tired. While people are often unaware of their sleep apnea, they are keenly aware of some of the adverse consequences of insufficient sleep. As we move intostage 2 sleep, the body goes into a state of deep relaxation. Upon admission to an outpatient clinic for treatment of mood disorders, she met all of the diagnostic criteria for substance dependence and was advised to dramatically limit her caffeine intake. Many people experience disturbances in their sleep at some point in their lives. These include daydreaming, intoxication, and unconsciousness due to anesthesia. According to Jung, certain symbols in dreams reflected universal archetypes with meanings that are similar for all people regardless of culture or location. This shift in policy may be in response to the scientific communitys recommendations and/or reflect changing public opinion regarding marijuana. For example, the National Institutes of Drug Abuse has sponsored research that suggests the misuse and abuse of the prescription pain killers hydrocodone and oxycodone are significant public health concerns (Maxwell, 2006). In the wake of the opiate epidemic, many drug cartels in Mexico are shifting from producing heroin to producing highly potent but inexpensive forms of methamphetamine. There was a significant positive correlation between the degree to which women thought about their former spouses during waking hours and the number of times their former spouses appeared as characters in their dreams (Cartwright, Agargun, Kirkby, & Friedman, 2006). These changes in brain wave activity can be visualized using EEG and are distinguished from one another by both the frequency and amplitude of brain waves (Figure 4.7). Some people who have injected many times into their arms will show track marks, while other users will inject into areas between their fingers or between their toes, so as not to show obvious track marks and, like all abusers of intravenous drugs, have an increased risk for contraction of both tuberculosis and HIV. This final section will consider hypnotic and meditative states as additional examples of altered states of consciousness experienced by some individuals. Biological rhythmsare internal rhythms of biological activity. It is relatively easy to wake someone from stage 1 sleep; in fact, people often report that they have not been asleep if they are awoken during stage 1 sleep. c. deaths due to accidents have increased. The virus is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads in the human population through human-to-human transmission. One hypothesis from this perspective might argue that sleep is essential to restore resources that are expended during the day. C) the severity and duration of the problem. Upset stomach and vomiting. Heroin can be snorted, smoked, or injected intravenously. Sleep-wake cycles seem to be controlled by multiple brain areas acting in conjunction with one another. We experience different states of consciousness and different levels of awareness on a regular basis. The early portion of stage 1 sleep producesalpha waves, which are relatively low frequency (813Hz), high amplitude patterns of electrical activity (waves) that become synchronized (Figure 4.8). Table 4.1shows the new recommendations, which describe sleep durations that are recommended, may be appropriate, and not recommended. Meditationis the act of focusing on a single target (such as the breath or a repeated sound) to increase awareness of the moment. Users often consume the drug every few hours across days-long binges called runs, in which the user forgoes food and sleep. While it is probably the most commonly used drug in the world, the potency of this particular drug pales in comparison to the other stimulant drugs described in this section. Some newer CPAP masks are smaller and cover only the nose. Some people also experience altered states of consciousness through meditation, hypnosis, or alcohol and other drugs. For example, a person may work from 7:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. on Monday, 3:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m. on Tuesday, and 11:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. on Wednesday. Our states of consciousness change as we move from wakefulness to sleep. There are two types of sleep apnea: obstructive sleep apnea and central sleep apnea. Obstructive sleep apneaoccurs when an individuals airway becomes blocked during sleep, and air is prevented from entering the lungs. Heroin produces intense feelings of euphoria and pleasure, which are amplified when the heroin is injected intravenously. Early versions of this theory proposed that dreams were not the meaning-filled representations of angst proposed by Freud and others, but were rather the result of our brain attempting to make sense of (synthesize) the neural activity (activation) that was happening during REM sleep. We spend approximately one-third of our lives sleeping. While there is tremendous variation in any given individuals sleep needs, the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) cites research to estimate that newborns require the most sleep (between 12 and 18 hours a night) and that this amount declines to just 79 hours by the time we are adults. When people have difficulty getting sleep due to their work or the demands of day-to-day life, they accumulate a sleep debt. Research indicates that meditation may help reduce blood pressure, and the American Heart Association suggests that meditation might be used in conjunction with more traditional treatments as a way to manage hypertension, although there is not sufficient data for a recommendation to be made (Brook et al., 2013). Getting the optimal amount of sleep has also been associated with other cognitive benefits. Given that withdrawal from a drug often involves an experience opposite to the effect of the drug, it should be no surprise that opioid withdrawal resembles a severe case of the flu. Some view a hypnotized persons behavior not as an altered or dissociated state of consciousness, but as their fulfillment of the social expectations for that role (Coe, 2009; Coe & Sarbin, 1966). There are a variety of drugs that treat restless leg syndrome: benzodiazepines, opiates, and anticonvulsants (Restless Legs Syndrome Foundation, n.d.). This chart illustrates the circadian change in body temperature over 28 hours in a group of eight young men. Because the biological clock is driven by light, exposure to bright light during working shifts and dark exposure when not working can help combat insomnia and symptoms of anxiety and depression (Huang, Tsai, Chen, & Hsu, 2013). Night terrorsresult in a sense of panic in the sufferer and are often accompanied by screams and attempts to escape from the immediate environment (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Vaping as a means to deliver nicotine is becoming increasingly popular, especially among teens and young adults. These brain areas include the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Alcohol, barbiturates (e.g., secobarbital, pentobarbital), Benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax). In fact, ameta-analysis, which is a study that combines the results of many related studies, conducted within the last decade indicates that by the time we are 65 years old, we average fewer than 7 hours of sleep per day (Ohayon, Carskadon, Guilleminault, & Vitiello, 2004). Unfortunately, this is not the case; however, several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the function of sleep. We also alter our consciousness through the use of various psychoactive drugs. Generally, and for most people, our circadian cycles are aligned with the outside world. In Hilgards experiments, he induced participants into a state of hypnosis, and placed their arms into ice water. It is much more difficult to awaken someone from sleep during stage 3 than during earlier stages. It is also common for these types of drugs to cause hallucinations of body sensations (e.g., feeling as if you are a giant) and a skewed perception of the passage of time. If you cannot fall asleep, leave your bed and do something else until you feel tired again. Avoid anything stimulating for an hour before bed. Once awakened from a narcoleptic attack, people report that they feel refreshed (Chokroverty, 2010). Body temperature rises throughout the waking day, peaking in the afternoon, and falls during sleep with the lowest point occurring during the very early morning hours. These kinds of schedules are common for individuals working in health care professions and service industries, and they are associated with persistent feelings of exhaustion and agitation that can make someone more prone to making mistakes on the job (Gold et al., 1992; Presser, 1995). Aside from their utility as analgesic drugs, opioid-like compounds are often found in cough suppressants, anti-nausea, and anti-diarrhea medications. In some cases, though, there may be no symptoms of inflammation at all. While there are variations, there are four parts that appear consistent in bringing people into the state of suggestibility associated with hypnosis (National Research Council, 1994). When we are very young, we spend up to 16 hours a day sleeping. Guilleminault et al. Adepressantis a drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity. These drugs share in common their ability to serve as agonists of the gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter system. In individuals diagnosed with a substance use disorder, there is a compulsive pattern of drug use that is often associated with both physical and psychological dependence. While we certainly welcome the convenience of having the darkness lit up, we also suffer the consequences of reduced amounts of sleep because we are more active during the nighttime hours than our ancestors were. Depletion of certain neurotransmitters can lead to mood dysphoria, cognitive problems, and other factors. Thirst. Sleepwalking, restless leg syndrome, and night terrors are all examples of parasomnias (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Low doses increase relaxation, decrease inhibitions. Natural opioids, calledopiates, are derivatives of opium, which is a naturally occurring compound found in the poppy plant. describes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. c. absence of subjective symptoms of disease. Ebola virus disease (EVD), formerly known as Ebola haemorrhagic fever, is a rare but severe, often fatal illness in humans.

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